UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA     AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT   STATION 

*w^.  .  «.*.-    ~-     «~„.~...  -r..r,-  BENJ.    IDE    WHEELER,    President 

COLLEGE   OF   AGRICULTURE 

^W     Ut0t    Vr    M,J^,,v'wl-,  writ  THOMAS    FORSYTH    HUNT,   Dean  and  Director 

BERKELEY  H.    E.    VAN    NORMAN,    Vige-Director    and    Dean 

University  Farm  School 

CIRCULAR  No.  165 
May,  1917 

FUNDAMENTALS    OF    SUGAR    BEET 

CULTURE  UNDER  CALIFORNIA 

CONDITIONS 

By  E.  L.  ADAMS 


The  commercial  growing  of  sugar  beets  necessitates  not  only  con- 
ditions of  soil,  water,  and  climate  satisfactory  for  the  growth  of  the 
beet,  but  transportation  facilities  to  a  mill,  as  sale  to  a  sugar  compamr 
constitutes  the  only  available  market  for  the  crop.  Sugar  beets  are  a 
bulky  crop  low  in  value  per  unit  of  weight,  and  beet-growing  areas 
are  of  necessity  confined  to  localities  on  some  railroad  line,  usually 
within  100  or  125  miles  of  a  mill,  and  to  lands  situated  within  easy 
hauling  distance  of  the  railroad  or  mill. 

An  idea  of  the  present  confines  of  the  beet-growing  territory  in 
California  may  be  gained  from  the  location  of  the  fifteen  mills  now 
(1917)  operating  or  soon  to  be  ready  for  operation.  These  mills  are 
in  counties  as  given  below : 

No.  of 
County  factories 

Alameda  1 

Glenn    1 

Kings    1 

Monterey    1 

Orange    5 

San  Bernardino  1 

San  Joaquin   (now  building)  2 

Santa  Barbara   1 

Tulare  1 

Ventura    1 

Some  idea  of  the  rapid  development  and  resultant  importance  of 
the  beet  industry  to  the  state  may  be  gleaned  from  the  fact  that  in 
the  relatively  short  period  of  ten  years  the  acreage  has  increased  from 
approximately  60,000  acres  in  1906  to  an  estimated  acreage  of  over 
144,000  in  1916.  By  three-year  averages  the  acreage  has  risen  from 
an  average  annual  acreage  for  the  years  1907-09  of  64,227  acres  to 


98,960  acres  for  1910-12,  and  to  118,600  acres  for  1913-15.  Indi- 
cations point  to  an  increasingly  larger  area  for  the  near  future. 

General  Requirements  for  Sugar-Beet  Production. — California  is 
climatically  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  sugar  beets  because 
absence  of  rain  from  May  to  October  permits  the  beets  to  mature 
normally,  and  to  be  readily  harvested,  while  the  control  of  soil 
moisture  by  irrigation  insures  ideal  conditions. 

Sugar  beets  will  yield  profitable  crops  on  widely  varying  soils, 
ranging  from  sandy  loams  to  heavy  adobes,  provided  the  land  is 
properly  handled.  Depth  is  essential  for  best  development  and  two, 
three,  or  more  feet  of  uniform  soil  free  from  hardpan  or  standing 
water  is  necessary.  The  heavier  types  of  soil  tend  to  produce  the 
largest  tonnage,  but  are  somewhat  more  difficult  to  work. 

While  beets  will  tolerate  more  alkali  than  most  field  crops,  lands 
heavily  charged  with  sodium  chloride  or  sodium  carbonate  will  not 
produce  the  best  crop  of  beets.  Sodium  sulphate  is  less  injurious 
than  the  other  salts.1 

Ideal  land  for  beet  culture  should  be  level  and  should  consist  of 
soil  of  friable  clay  loam  nature  four  or  more  feet  deep.  The  subsoil 
should  be  "free  from  hardpan  or  preponderating  amounts  of  gravel. 
Organic  matter  and  plant  food  must  be  abundant  and  alkali  must  not 
be  present  in  any  but  very  small  quantities.  Soils  of  such  nature  now 
producing  good  yields  of  barley,  potatoes,  beans,  alfalfa,  corn,  or  any 
other  ordinary  field  crop,  will  prove  to  be  good  beet  soils. 

The  beet  can  use  generous  amounts  of  water  to  advantage,  and 
in  fact  ample  moisture  is  essential  for  the  production  of  heavy  ton- 
nage. Different  soils  require  different  amounts  of  water,  but  as  nearly 
as  a  general  rule  can  be  given,  from  eighteen  to  thirty  acre-inches  of 
water,  properly  distributed  or  available  throughout  the  growing 
season  (as  explained  under  irrigation)  will  be  required  to  mature 
the  crop. 

To  make  its  best  growth  the  beet  requires  a  long  growing  season. 
Once  it  is  established,  it  is  not  especially  sensitive  to  either  light  frosts 
or  hot  weather.  Sections  having  a  growing  period  of  from  150  to 
200  days,  when  temperatures  do  not  drop  below  20°  F.  or  rise  much 
above  100°  F.,  with  ample  sunshine  to  promote  sugar  formation,  a/id 
not  subject  to  too  severe  drying  winds,  are  suited  for  sugar-beet 
production. 

Beets  Are  Grown  under  Contract. — In  arranging  for  the  growing 
of  beets,  the  usual  practice  is  for  the  interested  grower  and  the  mill 

i  For  discussion  of  tolerance  of  beets  to  alkali,  see  Bulletin  No.  169,  Cal.  Agr. 
Exp.  Station. 


to  sign  a  contract,  the  terms  of  which  govern  the  growing  and  sale 
of  the  crop.  This  contract  is  signed  early  in  the  season,  even  before 
the  seed  is  planted,  and  stipulates  the  conditions  under  which  beets 
must  be  raised  if  they  are  to  be  acceptable  to  the  sugar  company. 
Usually  the  contract  indicates  the  acreage  to  be  sown,  binds  the 
company  to  advance  and  supply  the  seed  at  a  given  price,  limits  the 
grower  to  the  use  of  this  seed  only,  regulates  the  time  of  harvesting 
and  delivery,  defines  the  limiting  size  and  sugar  content  of  an  accept- 


Ik. 

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Fig.  1. — Sugar  beets  nearing  maturity. 


able  crop,  points  out  the  place  of  delivery,  sets  the  rate  of  payment, 
and  allows  deductions  for  improperly  topped  or  dirty  beets. 

Two  Kinds  of  Contracts. — In  general,  two  kinds  of  contracts  are 
offered  to  growers;  one  providing  for  the  purchase  of  the  crop  upon 
a  flat  tonnage  basis;  the  other  upon  a  sliding  scale  of  payment, 
depending  upon  the  sugar  content  of  the  beet.  All  contracts  define 
a  limiting  point  below  which  the  quality  of  the  beet  may  not  fall, 
and  a  limit  which  the  weight  may  not  exceed.  As  a  rule,  11  or  12 
per  cent  sugar,  with  individual  beet  weights  not  to  exceed  four 
pounds,  are  the  desiderata. 


The  flat  rate  or  tonnage  method  provides  for  payment  to  the  grower  for  all 
beets  delivered  to  the  company  on  the  basis  of  weight  alone.  The  grower  is 
reimbursed  to  the  extent  of  the  actual  tonnage  delivered  at  a  given  rate  per  ton 
for  all  loads,  less  deduction  for  dirt,  green  tops,  and  trash,  provided  the  beets 
meet  the  requirements  of  minimum  sugar  content  and  maximum  weight.  Under 
this  plan  beets  testing,  for  example,  14  per  cent  sugar  bring  the  same  returns 
as  beets  testing  20  per  cent. 

In  the  sugar-content  contract,  payment  is  made  on  the  basis  of  quality  by 
providing  a  flat  rate  for  all  beets  of  a  minimum  sugar  content,  with  provision 
for  an  increasing  rate  of  payment  based  upon  each  additional  percent,  or  frac- 
tion thereof,  of  sugar  present  in  the  beet.  An  example  of  a  sliding-scale  rate  of 
payment  is  a  contract  calling  for  so  much  per  ton  (for  example  $4)  for  all  beets 
of  acceptable  weight  having  not  less  than  the  low  limit  in  sugar  content  (for 
example  11  per  cent),  with  provision  for  the  payment  of  so  many  cents  (for 
example  25c)  for  each  additional  per  cent  increase  in  sugar  content  or  fraction 
thereof  above  the  required  amount. 

Some  companies  offer  a  choice  of  contracts  based  npon  either 
method  of  payment. 

Study  the  Contract. — To  fully  understand  his  responsibilities  in 
connection  with  the  financing  and  growing  of  a  crop,  every  signer 
should  fully  acquaint  himself  with  the  provisions  of  his  contract. 
This  simple  course  will  later  avoid  confusion  and  possible  unnecessary 
misunderstanding. 

In  making  out  a  contract,  the  factors  to  be  considered  by  both 
grower  and  mill  are  : 

1.  Selection  and  amount  of  acreage  to  be  planted,  with  special  reference  to 
its  fitness  for  sugar  beet  production  and  the  capacity  of  the  farmer  to  grow  the 
beets. 

2.  Source  and  kind  of  seed,  with  reference  to  price  and  germinating  qualities. 

3.  Conditions  governing  the  growth  of  the  crop,  especially  as  to  time  of  thin- 
ning, irrigatr^,  and  time  of  harvest. 

4.  Conditions  governing  the  harvest  of  the  crop,  such  as  time  of  delivery, 
and  terms  of  acceptance,  as  point  of  topping,  deductions  for  green  tops  and  dirt, 
and  restrictions  concerning  individual  weight  of  beets  or  their  sugar  content. 

5.  Eate  and  time  of  payment,  including  any  bonuses. 

6.  Payment  of  freight  and  demurrage  charges. 

7.  Financial  advances  to  growers  and  the  manner  of  protecting  the  mill. 

8.  Assignment  of  contract. 

Kind  of  Contract  Determines  the  Beet  to  Grow. — When  a  choice 
of  methods  of  payment  is  offered,  the  grower  will  be  helped  to  a 
decision  as  to  which  to  select  by  a  study  of  the  land  to  be  planted 
to  beets.  In  sugar-beet  growing  the  crop  will  run,  as  a  rule,  either 
to  heavy  tonnage  of  beets  fair  to  good  in  sugar  or  to  light  tonnage 
of  beets  rich  in  sugar.     Apparently  tonnage  and  sugar  content  are 


more  or  less  opposed  characteristics  of  healthy  beets,  and  while  the 
two  merge  on  common  ground  of  medium  weight  and  medium  rich- 
ness, the  extremes  of  heavy  weight  and  excessive  sugar,  or  light 
weight  and  low  sugar  are  rarely  found  together.  Beets  to  be  grown 
under  conditions  of  deep,  rich,  friable  soils,  supplied  with  ample 
moisture,  properly  planted  and  cared  for,  with  a  long  season  of  cool 
weather  conditions  in  which  to  make  their  growth,  will  tend  toward 
heavy  tonnage  and  moderate  to  good  sugar.  Beets  grown  on  the  light, 
sandy,  warm  soils,  under  climatic  conditions  tending  to  be  hot  and 
dry  during  the  growing  season,  will  tend  to  be  light  in  weight  and 
rich  in  sugar. 

The  first  contract  a  grower  makes  must  of  necessity  be  based  upon 
the  judgment  of  others  as  to  what  his  land  will  do.  After  the  first 
season  any  grower  should  be  in  a  position  to  decide  intelligently  for 
himself  which  kind  of  contract  best  meets  his  interests.  An  illustra- 
tion may  make  this  point  clearer. 

A  certain  grower  has  a  piece  of  land  capable  of  producing  fifteen  tons  of 
16  per  cent  beets.  We  will  assume  that  factory  contracts  are  optional  under 
which  payment  will  be  made  at:  (A)  $5.50  per  ton  f.o.b.  cars,  for  all  beets  con- 
taining not  less  than  12  per  cent  sugar,  or  (B)  $5  per  ton  f.o.b.  cars  for  12 
per  cent  beets  and  25c  for  each  additional  percentage  of  sugar.  Under  these 
contracts  this  grower  will  secure  $5.50  per  ton  under  schedule  A  and  $6  under 
schedule  B.  It  is  obvious  which  schedule  he  should  secure  to  obtain  the  greatest 
returns. 

A  second  grower  has  two  types  of  land  and  desires  the  greatest  returns.  The 
first  type  will  produce  fifteen  tons  of  16  per  cent  beets,  the  second  type  but  nine 
tons  of  20  per  cent  beets.  Given  his  choice  of  contracts  as  outlined  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph,  he  finds  that  payment  will  be  $5.50  per  ton  for  the  product 
of  either  field  on  the  flat  rate  basis,  $6  per  ton  for  the  16  per  cent  beets,  and 
$7  per  ton  for  the  20  per  cent  beets,  on  the  sliding-scale  rate.  For  either  field 
the  sugar  content  contract  is  preferable.  To  determine  his  final  selection  of 
land,  however,  he  must  compare  his  per  acreage  returns,  and  he  then  finds  that 
the  land  producing  fifteen  tons  of  beets  at  $6  will  return  $90  per  acre,  while  nine 
tons  of  beets,  even  at  the  high  price  of  $7  per  ton,  will  only  return  $63  per  acre. 

In  general,  the  grower's  contract  based  on  purchase  of  beets  by 
the  sugar  content  is  the  more  profitable  (and  more  fair),  and  the  land 
capable  of  producing  the  heaviest  tonnage  will  give  the  greatest  acre- 
age returns.  But  whether  tonnage  or  sugar  content  is  desired,  the 
aim  should  always  be  to  produce  a  well-filled  root,  symmetrical  in 
outline,  possessing  a  single  tapering  tap  root  free  from  sideroots,  and 
carrying  a  single,  contact,  wrell-formed  top. 


CULTURAL  METHODS 

Preparing  the  Seedbed. — A  good  seedbed  is  the  first  essential  in 
the  production  of  sugar  beets.  If  maximum  crops  are  to  be  secured, 
the  land  must  be  placed  in  a  fine  state  of  cultivation  to  as  great  a 
depth  as  possible.  This  means  the  subjection  of  raw  land,  the  eradi- 
cation of  the  residue  of  former  crops,  such  as  alfalfa  roots  or  corn 
stubble,  the  breaking  up  of  plow  soles,  and  the  destruction  of  all  weed 
growth.  Usually  a  plowing  is  given  two  months  or  more  in  advance 
of  seeding  and  the  soil  worked  down  to  a  fine  seedbed.  Since  the 
beet  is  a  deep-rooting  crop,  it  is  essential  to  plow  as  deeply  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  past  handling  of  the  land,  regulating  the  depth  of 
plowing  to  prevent  the  bringing  up  of  more  than  an  inch  or  two  of 
soil  heretofore  unplowed.  When  deep  plowing  is  not  possible  or 
when  a  hard  layer  or  plow  pan  exists  beneath  the  depth  reached  by 
the  plow,  it  is  well  to  follow  the  plowing  with  a  land  cultivation  to 
an  additional  depth  of  four  to  six  inches.  This  tends  to  break  up 
any  plow  pan  which  may  exist  and  provides  a  still  deeper  seedbed. 
The  objects  of  thorough  preparation  are : 

(1)  To  furnish  a  medium  in  which  the  beet  can  freely  develop,  permitting 
the  root  to  penetrate  the  subsoil,  and  preventing  growth  above  ground;  (2) 
to  provide  a  deep  feeding  area;  (3)  to  increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of 
the  soil,  and  (4)  to  destroy  such  insect  and  fungus  troubles  as  are  susceptible 
to  at  least  partial  control  by  this  means. 

Following  the  plowing,  subsequent  working  consists  in  the  fre- 
quent use  of  the  land  cultivator,  ringroller,  plank  drag,  harrow,  and 
possibly  a  replowing  to  conserve  moisture,  destroy  weeds,  and 
prepare  and  preserve  a  seedbed  until  the  planting  season  opens. 
Thorough  cultivation  of  this  sort  results  in  a  seedbed  capable  of 
germinating  a  high  percentage  of  seed  and  in  conditions  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  the  young  seedling  from  the  very  beginning. 

In  plowing  land  left  rough  from  harvesting  the  previous  crops 
or  from  a  previous  plowing,  it  is  very  advisable  to  roll  or  disk  the 
field  in  advance  of  the  plowing  with  a  view  to  breaking  up  the  clods, 
which  if  turned  under  would  prevent  the  production  of  a  good  seed- 
bed. The  degree  of  packing  which  must  be  practiced  depends  on  the 
season,  being  less  when  future  rainfall  is  expected  and  more  when 
the  rainy  season  is  about  over  and  drying  conditions  prevail.  The 
aim  is  to  secure  in  the  final  result  a  firmed  cultivated  area  well  united 
with  the  undisturbed  subsoil  beneath.  When  much  manure,  weeds, 
or  similar  material  has  been  turned  under,  special  care  is  needed  to 


insure  a  proper  contact.  If  the  amount  of  green  stuff  is  excessive,  it 
is  sometimes  necessary  to  reirrigate  and  rework  the  land  before  a 
satisfactory  seedbed  is  secured. 

In  general,  the  fall  and  early  winter  preparation  is  the  more 
important.  In  the  spring,  plowing  is  usually  not  required,  unless 
weed  growth  or  packing  is  excessive.  In  fact,  in  handling  all  types 
of  heavy  soil  the  less  they  are  opened  up  in  the  spring  the  better,  as 
the  limits  of  their  being  either  too  wet  or  too  dry  are  very  close.  Fall 
plowing  a  little  on  the  dry  side,  immediate  harrowing,  frequent  use 
of  the  weed  cutter  during  the  winter,  followed  in  the  spring  by  a 
shallow  cultivation,  ringrolling,  dragging,  and  harrowing  to  settle 
the  seedbed  will  prove  the  best  policy  to  follow. 

Since  irrigation  is  generally  practiced  in  sugar-beet  production, 
the  necessary  ditching,  levelling,  checking  and  preparation  of  the 
field  for  the  handling  of  the  water  precedes  the  preparation  of  the 
seedbed.  For  lands  to  be  irrigated  by  the  furrow  system  the  plow 
furrows  should  run  with  the  slope  of  the  land  to  permit  thorough 
saturation  of  the  land  when  the  water  is  turned  on  the  field. 

Time  of  Planting. — The  commercial  time  of  planting  in  California 
covers  a  period  from  October  1  until  June  1,  local  conditions  largely 
influencing  the  time  when  the  seed  is  sown.  In  general,  as  near  as 
a  rule  can  be  given,  fall  planting — October,  November,  and  December 
— is  more  common  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state ;  early  spring 
planting — last  of  January  and  February — in  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  valleys;  and  later  spring  planting  in  the  coast  sections, 
such  as  Monterey  and  Santa  Barbara  counties.  Local  conditions  will 
determine  the  best  time  to  sow,  but  as  a  general  recommendation,  as 
early  planting  as  is  possible  to  be  strongly  recommended.  Although 
early  planting  carries  with  it  attendant  difficulties  of  soil  preparation, 
weed  destruction,  thinning  and  hoeing,  danger  of  root  rot  and  crust- 
ing, the  increased  tonnage  of  beets  obtained  fully  warrants  early 
planting,  even  though  it  becomes  necessary  to  replant  occasionally. 
In  the  interior  valleys  where  warm  weather  begins  at  an  early  date, 
early  planting  is  absolutely  essential  to  insure  well-established  growth 
before  the  heat  and  dryness  of  late  spring  and  summer  descend  upon 
the  fields.  The  danger  of  Curly  Top — described  under  beet  troubles 
— further  justifies  the  general  recommendation  that  early  planting 
should  be  the  rule. 

In  certain  sections,  especially  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  some 
of  the  central  coast  sections,  it  is  possible  to  plant  beets  so  early  that 
a  considerable  percentage  will  throw  up  seed-stalks.  If  this  seed 
formation  progresses  too  far,  the  sugar  content  of  the  crop  is  reduced 


8 

and  the  beets  become  too  woody  for  profitable  working.  "  Early 
planting,"  therefore,  must  be  construed  as  meaning  the  planting  of 
the  seed  as  early  as  possible,  while  guarding  against  planting  .so  early 
that  seed  production  replaces  satisfactory  maturing.  The  concensus 
of  opinion  is  that  the  preferable  time  of  planting  for  various  sec- 
tions is : 

Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys,  January  15  to  March  15. 

Southern  California,  October  1  to  April  1. 

Central  Coast  counties,  February  1  to  June  1. 

Late  planted  beets  sometimes  look  greener  and  have  larger  and 
more  luxuriant  tops  than  early  planted  beets,  but  the  actual  tonnage 
of  roots  secured  is  greater  in  the  early  plantings.  The  cooler  weather 
which  exists  when  early  planted  seedlings  are  coming  up  causes  them 
to  develop  a  small,  compact  top,  but  the  greater  supply  of  moisture 
available  for  their  use  and  the  longer  growing  season  result  in  a 
larger  average  root. 

When  planting  in  advance  of  copious  spring  rains,  followed  as 
they  usually  are  by  heavy  winds,  which  combine  to  crust  the  soil, 
planting  should  be  made  early  enough  to  give  the  seedlings  time 
enough  to  form  several  true  leaves  in  advance  of  the  storms,  or  else 
seeding  should  be  delayed  until  after  these  storms  are  past. 

If  seeding  is  done  in  late  spring  when  sufficient  moisture  is  not 
available  to  germinate  the  seed,  an  irrigation  should  be  given  before 
seeding.  Success  does  not  usually  attend  any  effort  to  irrigate  seed 
with  a  view  to  inducing  germination,  as  crusts  form  to  a  detrimental 
extent. 

If  crusts  are  formed  by  irrigation  or  rainfall  before  the  seed 
germinates,  care  to  break  this  crust  is  essential  before  the  young 
germinating  plantlets  turn  yellow  (noted  by  turning  over  the  crust 
and  inspecting  the  germinating  seed).  This  can  be  overcome  on  most 
soils  by  a  light  harrowing  across  the  rows  with  the  spike-tooth  harrow, 
inclining  the  teeth  to  the  rear  or  setting  them  back  to  the  point  where 
they  merely  penetrate  the  crust,  or  by  a  rolling,  or  by  the  use  of 
"spiders"  on  the  cultivator,  utilizing  two  "spiders"  for  each  row 
and  running  on  the  outer  edges  of  the  row.  Usually,  however,  under 
such  conditions  replanting  is  advisable  and,  in  fact,  is  necessary  if 
the  seedlings  are  yellowed  or  the  final  stand  is  irregular. 

In  some  sections,  especially  if  the  land  is  charged  with  alkali, 
early  planting  is  practiced,  even  though  the  land  is  dry,  the  seed 
being  placed  very  close  to  the  surface  and  the  winter  rains  being 
counted  upon  to  firm  the  seedbed,  germinate  the  seed,  and  keep  the 
plants  growing. 


Methods  of  Planting. — The  mill  usually  furnishes  the  necessary 
seed  to  the  farmer  at  a  price  as  close  to  cost  as  possible  (in  late  years 
occasionally  even  below  cost).  Several  advantages  accrue  to  the 
farmer  from  such  an  arrangement.  He  secures  seed  on  credit  and 
at  low  cost.  The  seed  selected  is  the  best  foreign  or  domestic  avail- 
able, of  strains  tested  out  to  prove  their  worth  in  the  community, 
and  each  lot  as  received,  is  usually  tested  for  germination  and  purity. 

In  planting,  the  seed  is  sowed  by  drills  capable  of  planting  four 
or  eight  rows  at  once,  spaced  to  distances  ranging  from  sixteen  inches 
to  twenty-four  inches  between  rows,  with  eighteen  or  twenty  inches 
the  more  common  spacing.  The  drills  place  any  desired  amount  of 
seed  at  depths  ranging  from  one-half  inch  to  three  inches  or  more, 
cover  the  seed,  and  if  desired,  compress  the  soil  above  them.  The 
width  of  row  depends  on  the  beet  desired  and  the  growing  conditions. 
Profitable  close  spacing  is  possible  only  on  fertile  lands  with  proper 
conditions  of  water  and  climate,  and  careful  attention  to  the  care  of 
the  growing  crops.  On  less  fertile  lands,  or  where  water  is  insufficient, 
greater  spacing  is  desirable.  A  seedbed  properly  prepared  for  the 
reception  of  the  seed  will  permit  a  one-inch  or  shallow  planting  and 
insure  a  stand.  If  deeper  planting  is  necessary,  greater  attention  to 
the  preparation  of  future  seedbeds  will  be  in  order. 

The  depth  of  planting  should  be  carefully  determined.  The  rut 
in  which  the  seed  is  dropped  being  comparatively  narrow,  large  seed 
balls  will  not  reach  the  bottom  and  care  should  be  exercised  when 
using  a  supply  having  a  majority  of  large  seed  balls,  to  run  the  seeder 
deep  enough  so  that  the  seed  will  be  placed  at  the  desired  depth. 

Early  in  the  season,  when  the  subsoil  is  inclined  to  be  cold  and 
future  rains  are  expected,  quick  germination  is  desired,  and  shallow 
planting  to  secure  surface  warmth  should  be  the  rule.  Under  these 
conditions,  the  minimum  amount  of  seed  is  used,  with  little  or  no 
pressure  being  applied  to  the  press  wheels  of  the  machine.  Later  in 
the  season,  when  the  moisture  is  receding  or  evaporating  rapidly, 
more  seed  is  provided  and  placed  deeper  in  the  soil.  In  instances 
where  the  moisture  is  three  inches  or  more  from  the  surface,  it  is 
desirable  to  clamp  "clod  pushers"  upon  the  runner  brace,  just  in 
advance  of  the  runner  and  at  an  elevation  of  about  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  a  parallel  line  above  the  bottom  of  the  runner.  This  reduces 
the  amount  of  soil  through  which  the  young  sprouts  must  penetrate 
to  reach  the  surface.  To  conserve  the  moisture  and  to  hasten  germ- 
ination, some  pressure  is  applied  to  the  press  wheels  which  pack  the 
soil  directly  over  the  seed. 

From  twelve  to  twenty  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre,  with 


10 

fifteen  pounds  or  more  as  the  general  rule.  When  a  large  acreage, 
100  acres  or  more,  is  to  be  seeded,  the  work  should  be  so  planned  that 
a  delay  in  seeding  occurs  sufficiently  often  to  prevent  too  great  a  rush 
of  work  at  thinning  time  and  to  lengthen  the  ripening  season.  A 
four-row  drill  will  seed  about  ten  acres  a  day  and  thinners  can  handle 
about  one-fourth  to  one-half  acre  per  man  daily,  thus  indicating  some- 
thing of  the  limits  of  time  in  which  the  work  should  be  completed. 

Cultivation. — Some  growers  roll  their  fields  with  a  smooth  roller 
as  soon  as  the  crop  is  well  up,  in  advance  of  any  cultivation.  The 
rolling  disturbs  any  crust  which  may  occur,  packs  the  land,  insures 
a  more  even  distribution  of  moisture,  facilitates  the  use  of  the  culti- 
vator, and  materially  lessens  the  labor  of  thinning.  Cultivation  is 
started  as  soon  as  the  rows  are  well  defined  and  is  designed  to  provide 
the  three-fold  object  of  weed  destruction,  aeration,  and  maintenance 
of  a  loose  earth  mulch  for  retention  of  water.  The  first  cultivation 
precedes  the  thinning,  using  cultivators  equipped  with  weed  knives 
to  remove  all  weeds  between  the  rows,  and  should  cut  as  close  to  the 
beets  as  possible. 

Subsequent  cultivations  are  given  at  intervals  of  ten  days  to  two 
weeks  and  continued  until  the  size  of  the  plants  prohibits  stock  and 
implements  from  passing  down  the  rows.  The  narrow  chisels  (1*4- 
inch  to  lV2-inch)  and  the  duck-foot  cultivator  teeth  with  weed-cutter 
attachment*  are  generally  used,  being  attached  to  special  two-horse 
adjustable  cultivator  frames  capable  of  cultivating  four  rows  at  a 
time.  The  wheels  are  built  to  castor  and  are  controlled  by  a  foot 
pedal  enabling  the  operator  to  shift  the  direction  in  following  the 
rows.  Deep  cultivation  should  be  the  rule  as  the  season  progresses, 
to  permit  even  expansion  of  the  growing  beets,  and  easier  plowing-out 
at  harvest  time.  The  total  number  of  cultivations  given  the  crop  vary 
in  different  sections,  but  more  rather  than  less  than  the  usual  practice 
should  be  the  rule.  , 

Destruction  of  all  weeds  is  important.  Morning  glory  or  Johnson 
grass  must  not  occupy  the  land  given  over  to  beets,  and  to  a  lesser 
degree  the  same  statement  applies  to  bur  clover,  pigweed,  mustard, 
dock  and  other  common  weeds. 

Thinning. — Since  each  seed-ball  contains  several  beet  seeds,  more 
plants  will  be  produced  than  are  needed,  and  when  the  young  beets 
have  four  true  leaves  well  developed,  they  must  be  thinned  to  provide 
sufficient  area  for  unobstructed  development  of  the  selected  plants. 
Hand  labor  using  short-handled  beet  hoes  is  the  only  practical  method 
of  doing  this  work  as  no  machine  for  the  purpose  has  thus  far  been 
perfected.     Sufficient  labor  should  be  available  to  complete  the  thin- 


11 

ning  before  the  third  pair  of  leaves  is  fully  grown.  Blocking  ahead 
of  thinning,  where  it  can  be  done,  is  advisable.  Blocking  consists  in 
first  hoeing  out  the  spaces  to  be  left,  leaving  the  remaining  beets  in 
small  bunches  from  which  the  beet  selected  to  remain  will  be  chosen 
in  the  final  thinning. 

The  spacing  varies  from  eight  to  eighteen  inches,  the  same  quali- 
fications holding  in  determining  the  distance  as  pointed  out  above 
with  reference  to  the  distance  between  rows.  Spacing  from  eight  to 
ten  inches  is  perhaps  the  more  general  practice.  In  thinning,  care 
should  be  observed  to  space  accurately,  to  reserve  the  sturdiest  beets, 
to  pull  by  hand  the  beets  close  to  the  one  which  is  to  be  left,  to  hoe 
off  the  remaining  surplus  deep  enough  to  prevent  resprouting,  and  to 
avoid  unnecessary  digging  around  the  plant  to  be  left. 

The  thinning  should  be  regulated  so  as  to  result  in  the  selection 
of  the  strongest  beets,  their  even  distribution  throughout  the  row, 
and  the  destruction  of  all  weeds  in  the  row  or  immediately  around 
the  beets. 

Irrigation. — As  sugar  beets  draw  quite  heavily  upon  the  moisture 
supply  in  the  soil,  irrigation  is  necessary  except  under  unusually 
favorable  natural  conditions.  Different  soils  require  various  treat- 
ment with  regard  to  irrigation,  and  no  definite  rule  can  be  given 
which  is  applicable  to  all  conditions.  A  proper  regulation  of  soil 
moisture  means,  enough  available  to  germinate  the  seed  and  bring 
it  well  through  the  thinning  period,  a  maximum  quantity  of  moisture 
from  the  eight  or  ten-leaf  stage  until  six  or  eight  weeks  before  har- 
vest, and  a  gradually  diminishing  supply  to  permit  proper  ripening 
with  its  attendant  increase  in  sugar  content.  The  need  of  moisture 
may  be  determined  by  examination  of  the  soil  itself  to  the  depth  to 
which  the  root  system  is  developing,  by  a  darkening  to  a  purplish 
or  bluish  green  of  the  light  green  color  of  normal  beets,  by  increasing 
flabbiness  of  root  or  leaf  stem,  and  lack  of  thrift,  or  by  a  wilting  not 
caused  by  excessive  sunshine  or  heat  of  the  day.  On  large  tracts  it 
is  better  to  start  irrigating  too  early  rather  than  too  late,  as  best 
results  will  not  follow  when  beets  are  permitted  to  reach  the  stage 
of  actually  suffering  for  want  of  water. 

The  flooding  system  of  irrigating  has  been  the  prevailing  custom 
in  this  state,  but  present  tendencies  are  in  the  direction  of  more 
furrow  irrigation  and  less  flooding.  This  is  apparently  a  wise  change 
in  methods.  Whatever  the  system  used,  care  must  be  exercised  to 
provide  ample  moisture  without  over-irrigation  throughout  the  soil 
area  occupied  by  the  root  system.  An  insufficient  amount  will  reduce 
tonnage,  while  an  oversupply  is  not  only  not  economical,  but  tends  to 


12 

remove  available  plant  foods  by  carrying  them  off  through  drainage. 
The  rule  in  irrigating  should  be  to  study  the  movement  of  the  water 
in  the  soil  by  means  of  a  probe,  soil  augur,  or  shovel,  and  aim  to  pro- 
vide only  the  optimum  amount  of  water. 

The  quick  going-back  of  beets  once  they  show  the  need  of  water 
emphasizes  the  necessity  of  applying  water  to  promote  a  steady,  uni- 
form growth  when  the  first  signs  of  distress  appear.  Only  a  few 
days  of  insufficient  moisture  are  enough  to  check  growth  seriously, 
the  length  of  time  depending  on  the  climatic  conditions  which  in 
turn  regulate  the  movement  of  the  moisture.  In  hot,  dry,  windy 
weather  a  "going  back"  will  be  much  more  rapid  than  during  cool, 
foggy  spells.  Growing  beets  which  become  very  yellow  for  lack  of 
water  are  beyond  the  stage  when  they  can  give  the  largest  returns 
from  irrigation,  but  even  then  an  application  will  often  pay. 

Water  applied  to  mature  beets  during  hot  summer  weather  tends 
to  preserve  the  beets.  It  also  assists  by  loosening  the  ground  so  that 
plowing-out  is  easier.  Applied  at  this  time,  however,  water  will  not 
increase  tonnage  to  any  appreciable  extent.  During  cool  weather,  or 
at  a  time  of  year  favorable  to  beet  growth,  water  may  prove  detri- 
mental, by  causing  renewed  growth,  especially  if  this  growth  results 
in  the  formation  of  seed  stalks,  as  these  are  usually  produced  at  the 
expense  of  the  sugar  content.  The  beets  may  weigh  a  trifle  more 
because  of  the  water  taken  up,  but  the  actual  solid  content  is  not 
improved. 

Every  irrigation  should  be  followed  by  a  cultivation  as  soon  as 
the  land  is  dry  enough  to  sustain  stock.  The  cultivation  will  prevent 
baking,  crusting,  and  cracking,  with  resultant  loss  of  moisture  and 
pinching  of  the  beets. 

Fertilizers. — Commercial  fertilizers  have  never  come  into  general 
use  in  growing  sugar  beets  in  this  state.  Trials  with  different  fertiliz- 
ing ingredients  have  been  run  by  various  mills,  but  the  results  have 
not  been  sufficiently  uniform  to  warrant  extensive  applications  of 
mineral  fertilizers.  Doubtless  as  time  goes  on  more  attention  will  be 
given  to  fertilizers,  especially  on  the  lighter,  or  the  longer  farmed,  or 
on  peaty  types  of  soil. 

Fall  application  of  stable  manures  to  beet  lands  is  a  common 
practice  in  southern  California,  and  is  gradually  receiving  more  atten- 
tion in  all  parts  of  the  state.  Stable  manures  are  a  valuable  asset 
in  continuous  beet  production  and  deserve  extensive  use,  especially 
on  the  lighter  soil  types. 

Green  manuring,  consisting  in  the  growing  and  plowing-under  of 
green  crops  of  such   plants  as  rye,  vetch,  bitter  clover,  bur  clover 


13 


and  field  peas,  is  a  practice  worthy  of  greater  extension  where  the 
supply  of  organic  matter  is  in  need  of  replenishment  or  if  stable 
manure  is  not  to  be  had.  When  irrigation  is  available,  green-manure 
crops  can  sometimes  be  grown  in  the  interval  between  regular  farm 
crops. 

On  land  utilized  for  more  or  less  continuous  beet  growing,  plow- 
ing under  the  beet  tops,  rather  than  feeding  them  to  stock,  is  meeting 
with  increasing  favor. 

Maturity  and  Harvesting. — The  time  of  harvest  is  usually  desig- 
nated by  the  mill  contracting  for  the  beets.     This  varies  somewhat 


Fig.  2. — Furrow  irrigation  of  sugar  beets. 

from  season  to  season,  as  the  starting  of  the  mill  campaign  is  post- 
poned until  there  is  reasonable  assurance  of  an  ample  and  steady 
supply  of  satisfactory  beets.  So  far  as  the  beets  themselves  are  con- 
cerned, harvest  may  go  forward  any  time  after  maturity.  Maturity 
is  indicated  by  a  circle  of  dead  outer  leaves  on  the  individual  plant, 
and  a  general  yellowing  appearance  of  the  entire  field,  while  mill 
laboratory  tests  for  sugar  of  typical  field  samples  provide  an  addi- 
tional and  very  satisfactory  check. 

The  time  required  to  reach  maturity  varies  with  the  time  of  plant- 
ing. Fall-sown  beets  require  seven  to  eight  months,  early  spring-sown 
beets  six  to  seven  months,  while  late  spring-sown  beets  in  favorable 
localities  will  mature  in  four  to  five  months.    The  quickest  maturation 


14 

takes  place  in  spring  plantings  in  localities  of  hot  summer  weather, 
and  on  light  soils ;  the  opposite  is  true  in  cooler  sections,  on  the  heavier 
types  of  soil,  or  in  fall  plantings. 

Harvesting  is  accomplished  by  '  *  plowing  out ' '  the  beets.  Specially 
constructed  implements  are  run  down  the  rows  and  loosen  the  plants 
in  place.  The  beets  are  then  removed  by  hand,  several  rows  thrown 
together  in  one  long  windrow  or  in  piles  and  the  tops  cut  off  by 
hand  labor  using  heavy  butcher  knives.  A  very  satisfactory  method 
is  to  throw  the  beets  from  nine  rows  together  side  by  side  in  one  long 
row,  tops  all  pointing  one  way,  and  to  follow  down  the  row  in 
topping,  standing  each  beet  on  its  cut  surface.  A  space  of  nine  rows 
allows  sufficient  room  for  the  wagons  to  pass  through  and  places  the 
beets  in  a  position  for  quick  loading.  In  different  sections,  however, 
the  prevailing  custom  must  be  followed  to  a  large  extent,  since  the 
type  of  labor  doing  the  hand  work  has  its  own  way  and  is  not  easily 
changed. 

All  beets  to  be  correctly  topped  must  have  the  leaves  and  all  green 
portions  of  the  crown  removed.  This  means  topping  at  the  ground- 
line.  The  men  who  do  the  topping  must  be  closely  watched  in  this 
regard  and  proper  topping  insisted  upon.  The  green  crowns  contain 
salts  which  interfere  with  sugar  extraction  in  the  mill  and  deduction 
for  such  beets  is  always  made  on  delivery.  In  addition  to  paying 
for  the  transportation  and  handling  of  a  portion  of  the  crop  for 
which  he  receives  no  returns,  the  grower  who  ships  green  tops  is 
taking  from  his  land  the  very  plant  food  elements  most  valuable  to 
him.  Analyses  indicate  that  of  all  plant  foods  removed  by  a  beet 
crop  in  making  its  growth,  approximately  75  per  cent  of  the  total 
is  contained  in  the  leaves  and  crowns,  with  but  25  per  cent  in  the 
roots.  The  importance  of  proper  topping  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized. 

After  being  topped,  the  beets  are  loaded  on  wagons  for  delivery 
to  the  freight  cars  or  to  the  mill.  Where  special  unloading  platforms 
or  dumps  are  not  available,  rope  nets  are  required  to  facilitate  the 
removal  of  the  load.  The  extensive  construction  of  unloading  dumps 
is,  however,  largely  doing  away  with  the  net  method. 

Yields. — Yields  of  beets  vary  within  wide  limits,  from  fields  which 
produce  barely  enough  to  pay  operating  expenses  to  exceptional  com- 
mercial yields  of  thirty  tons  or  more.  In  general,  ten  tons  represents 
about  an  average  yield  in  this  state,  while  fifteen  tons  is  considered 
a  good  yield.  Some  experienced  growers,  who  operate  under  favorable 
conditions,  obtain  an  average  of  twenty  and  even  of  twenty-five 
tons  from  fields  containing  extensive  acreages.     Since,   in  general, 


15 


eight  tons  of  roots  are  required  to  pay  the  cost  of  production,  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  increase  tonnage  wherever  not  more  than  ten 
or  eleven  tons  represents  the  usual  crop. 

The  Sugar  Beet  in  Crop  Rotation. — On  land  annually  receiving 
the  beneficial  effects  of  the  mill  waste  water,  it  is  safe  to  say  crops  of 
sugar  beets  can  succeed  one  another  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time 
without  exhausting  the  soil's  fertility.  The  amounts  of  plant  food 
and  lime  deposited  in  the  waste  water  are  usually  more  than  enough 
to  replace  that  removed  by  the  beet  crop.  Only  with  increases  in 
weeds  or  other  influences  detrimental  to  beet  production,  will  the 
undesirability  of  continued  beet  culture  develop. 


Fig.  3. — Practical  Method  of  Handling  Sugar  Beets  at  Harvest   Time. 


On  land  not  receiving  the  waste  water  the  number  of  crops  which 
can  be  grown  consecutively  cannot  be  specifically  stated.  New  land 
will  produce  crops  for  many  years,  and  the  gradual  increase  in  pro- 
ductivity is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge.  Lands  receiving  intelli- 
gent handling,  especially  with  reference  to  manuring,  will  produce 
beets  for  many  years. 

Two  reasons  for  rotation  may  be  advanced,  the  time  when  the 
rotation  will  start  being  necessarily  an  individual  matter.  The  first 
reason  is  based  on  gradually  decreasing  yields  of  beets  through  dimin- 
ishing fertility  or  increase  in  beet  troubles.  Rotation  then  follows 
as  a  natural  means  of  building  up  the  land  again.  The  second 
reason  for  rotation  is  the  desirability  of  securing  the  beneficial  effects 


16 

of  the  sugar-beet  crop  upon  succeeding  crops.  Large  increases  in 
yields  of  cereals,  potatoes,  beans,  and  other  field  crops  follow  sugar 
beet  culture.  The  deep  preparation  of  the  soil  necessary  to  provide 
a  seedbed  for  beets,  the  careful  cultivation  and  deep  working  of  the 
land  in  removing  the  crop,  the  available  plant  foods  freed  in  the 
decaying  beet  tops  and  roots  provide  an  environment  capable  of 
producing  heavy  yields  of  any  of  the  field  crops  adapted  to  the  local 
conditions. 

In  planning  the  sequence  of  crops  to  be  grown  it  is  advisable  not 
to  precede  beets  with  any  crops  which  will  render  the  growing  of 
beets  difficult,  such  as  the  presence  of  undecayed  corn  or  sorghum 
stubble  or  half -killed  alfalfa  stands,  and  to  guard  against  the  grow- 
ing of  potatoes  or  beets  immediately  following  one  another. 

The  sugar  beet  lends  itself  especially  well  as  a  rotation  crop  in 
connection  with  alfalfa,  and  should  prove  a  desirable  change  for  lands 
devoted  primarily  to  dairying.  As  an  intercrop  in  young  orchards, 
where  sufficient  moisture  and  fertility  is  available  for  both  trees  and 
beets,  the  sugar  beet  furnishes  a  satisfactory  means  of  providing  an 
income  while  insuring  thorough  and  proper  working  of  the  soil. 

By-Products. — Two  by-products  of  sugar-beet  culture  are  of  in- 
terest to  the  California  farmer.  The  first  is  the  mill  waste  water, 
mentioned  elsewhere,  of  value  to  all  farmers  whose  lands  are  so  sit- 
uated that  they  can  irrigate  with  this  water,  which,  heavily  charged 
with  lime  and  other  elements  favorable  to  plant  growth,  is  of  marked 
beneficial  effect. 

The  beet  tops  are  a  valuable  stock  feed  and  offer  a  substantial 
additional  income  whenever  stock  is  available  for  feeding,  if  their 
use  as  green-manure  crop  can  be  dispensed  with.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  feeding  of  decayed  or  moldy  tops  and  to  watch  cattle 
for  choking  if  they  are  unused  to  this  kind  of  feed.  Some  dry 
roughage  should  be  fed  with  the  tops  to  avoid  scouring.  If  these 
precautions  are  taken  the  tops,  green  or  dry,  form  a  valuable  addition 
to  the  feed  supply.  Tops  are  salable  whenever  stock  is  available,  at 
from  50  cents  to  $4  per  acre,  several  localities  basing  their  charges 
for  the  tops  upon  the  net  tonnage  of  beets  sold  to  the  mill. 

In  disposing  of  tops  the  grower  should  either  have  them  fed  on 
the  land,  or  return  the  equivalent  in  manure,  and  provide  for  the 
removal  of  all  stock  whenever  the  land  is  wet  enough  to  be  in  danger 
of  suffering  from  the  tramping  of  the  stock. 

Contract  Labor. — As  beet  production  requires  considerable  hand 
work,  especially  in  thinning,  hoeing,  irrigating,  pulling,  topping,  and 
loading,  a  class  of  labor  able  and  willing  to  do  this  kind  of  work 


17 

must  be  available.  The  usual  California  farmer  will  not  or  can  not 
do  this  work,  even  if  raising  but  a  few  acres.  Greatest  reliance  is 
placed  upon  Japanese,  Hindu,  and  Mexican  labor.  Some  Porto  Rican, 
Italian,  Greek,  and  a  very  little  Chinese  help  is  occasionally  used. 

The  common  method  is  for  the  farmer  to  contract  with  some  labor 
"boss,"  the  terms  of  agreement  being  drawn  up  in  writing,  under 
which  all  stipulations  as  to  rate  of  payment,  housing  facilities,  feed- 
ing arrangements,  and  methods  of  handling  the  crop  are  specified. 
The  contractor  agrees  to  furnish  sufficient  men  to  properly  care  for 
the  crop. 

Rates  of  payment  for  this  work  vary  in  different  sections. 

Some  contracts  provide  for  payment  of  thinning  on  a  flat  acreage  basis,  as 
for  example  $7.50,  divided  into  $5  for  thinning,  $1.50  for  first  hoeing,  and  $1 
for  second  hoeing,  with  payment  for  harvest  on  a  tonnage  basis,  and  for  other 
work,  such  as  irrigating,  on  a  daily  basis.  Other  contracts  provide  for  a  sliding 
scale  of  payment  for  all  work  from  thinning  on  through  harvest.  Here  again 
rates  vary,  depending  on  the  weediness  of  the  ground,  the  size  of  the  job,  the 
character  of  the  soil,  and  the  ability  and  reputation  of  the  farmer  as  a  beet 
grower.  For  example,  one  system  of  payment  for  all  work  done  on  a  tonnage 
basis  is  $15  per  acre  for  six  to  twelve-ton  yields.  Another  schedule  provides  for 
payment  at  the  rate  of  $12  per  acre  for  land  producing  but  six  tons,  $12.60  per 
acre  for  seven-ton  yields,  and  on  up  by  a  graduated  scale  calling  for  an  additional 
60  cents  per  acre  for  each  ton  increase  in  yield. 

In  summing  up  the  labor  situation  in  beet  growing  it  is  well  to 
point  out  the  necessity  of  ample  assurance  of  labor  when  needed,  as 
the  various  kinds  of  work  required  must  be  done  on  time,  and  to  open 
negotiations  only  with  reliable  contractors.  Provisions  for  field  super- 
vision of  this  labor,  and  penalties  for  non-fulfillment  of  the  contract, 
if  such  can  be  included,  are  extremely  desirable. 

Beet  Troubles. — The  limiting  factor  of  sugar-beet  production  in 
California  today,  so  far  as  beet  troubles  are  concerned,  is  the  danger 
of  Curly  Top,  a  disease  resulting  from  the  attacks  of  a  small  native 
insect  (Eutettix  tenella),  a  whitish  leaf -hopper  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
long.  This  insect,  feeding  upon  the  plant,  infects  it  in  such  a  way 
that  all  leaves  subsequently  produced  come  forth  curled,  yellowish, 
stunted,  and  distorted,  while  masses  of  fine,  hairy  rootlets  and  black- 
ened rings  develop  upon  and  within  the  beet  root — the  typical  Curly 
Leaf  condition  known  to  most  experienced  growers.  The  disease  is 
produced  by  the  feeding  of  even  a  single  insect  for  as  short  a  time 
as  five  minutes.  Without  going  deeply  into  the  reasons,  it  is  well  to 
point  out  several  pertinent  factors.  Early  beets  grown  in  cool  weather 
are  much  freer  from  Curly  Top  than  those  making  their  early  growtli 
during  hot  weather.    Supply  of  proper  conditions  for  vigorous  growth 


18 

reduces  the  damage.  Beets  infected  after  they  have  ten  or  twelve 
leaves  will  still  make  a  marketable  beet  in  spite  of  the  infection. 
Proper  irrigation  will  reduce  damage,  as  will  cool  weather  conditions, 
indicating  the  desirability,  and  in  some  of  the  warmer  sections,  the 
absolute  necessity  of  early  planting.  In  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacra- 
mento valleys  experience  fully  indicates  the  desirability  of  getting 


m   ■! 

V              ■    M?-                          ^ 

L,  Jt^ ■"     |^fc3?v^5 

(1 

i&$Bsm 

R                           •  W^^m*. 

^Bzmk 

H^V^^H 

Fig.  4. — Typical  specimen  df  a  sugar  beet  affected  with  Curly   Top.     Note  the 
prominent  veining,  distorted  leaves,  and  abnormal  growth  of  fine  roots. 

the  seed  into  the  ground  not  later  than  March  1  and  as  much  earlier 
as  possible  up  to  the  first  of  January.  Even  in  the  cool  coast  sections 
early  planting  is  advisable  to  insure  a  well  developed  beet  before  a 
serious  increase  of  insects  occurs.  The  insects  reach  the  fields  from 
two  sources,  those  wintering  over  in  the  immediate  vicinity  and  those 
migrating  from  neighboring  ranges  of  Atriplex,  Russian  thistle,  sage 
and  other  plants  on  which  the  insects  are  native,  often  flying  from 


19 

their  native  habitat  to  the  beet  fields.  Control,  as  at  present  worked 
out,  means  planting  as  early  as  possible  to  insure  a  large  beet  at  the 
time  of  exposure,  and  proper  attention  to  thinning,  cultivation  and 
irrigation. 

Other  troubles  occurring  occasionally  or  in  certain  localities  which 
may  require  some  attention  from  time  to  time  on  the  part  of  growers, 
but  need  little  more  than  passing  notice  here,  are  the  woolly  aphis, 
which  forms  woolly-like  masses  in  the  beet  roots;  nematodes,  or  eel- 
worms,  which  cause  knotty  excrescences  on  the  fine  roots ;  small  black 
beetles  (Blapstinis  sp.),  one-fourth  inch  long,  which  destroy  the  tiny 
seedlings  as  they  are  coming  up ;  red  spider,  a  green  beetle  with 
twelve  spots  (twelve-spotted  Diabrotica),  a  leaf -feeding  army  worm, 
wireworms,  plant  lice,  and  cutworms,  which  feed  upon  the  growing 
beet  and  are  generally  easily  recognized  by  every  farmer.  Compound 
tops  due  to  excessive  growth,  woody  beets — the  result  of  seed  pro- 
duction, two  fungus  leaf  spots  (Cercospora  beticola  and  Phoma 
betae),  a  seedling  root  rot  (Rhizoctonia) ,  rust,  ground  squirrels, 
gophers,  and  moles,  are  also  worthy  of  mention  in  a  consideration  of 
beet  pests. 

Equipment  Needs  and  Costs. — While  some  special  equipment  is 
needed  in  sugar-beet  farming  other  than  that  required  for  general 
farming,  the  additional  investment  is  not  especially  great.  For  the 
purpose  of  taking  care  of  all  the  wrork  connected  with  forty  acres  of 
sugar  beets,  the  operator  will  require : 

Four  to  eight  1200  to  1500-pound  work  stock  (depending  on  type  of  soil, 
length  of  haul,  and  possibilities  of  hiring). 

Harness. 

One  fourteen-inch  plow. 

One  spike-tooth  harrow. 

One  plank-drag   (preferably  equipped  with  spike  harrow  teeth). 

One  land  cultivator. 

One  combined  clod  crusher  and  land  roller. 

One  beet  seeder  (unless  rented  by  mill  to  grower). 

One  running  gear,  four  to  five-inch  tires,  rated  as  two  and  one-half  tons  or 
larger. 

One  four-row  crop  cultivator,  with  assortment  of  cultivating  and  irrigating 
attachments. 

One  beet  plow. 

Usual  assortment  of  beet  hoes,  ordinary  hoes  and  shovels. 

On  most  farms,  where  general  farming  is  the  practice,  much  of 
the  equipment  given  here  is  already  available.  When  the  total  equip- 
ment is  to  be  purchased,  the  cost  will  range  from  $1300  to  $3000, 
depending  on  whether  new  or  second-hand,  and  the  grade  of  stock 


20 

and  implements  sought.  In  general,  however,  sugar  beet  work  re- 
quires good  work  stock  and  well-constructed  tools,  strong  enough  to 
stand  a  great  amount  of  wear  and  tear. 

For  small  acreages  planted  to  sugar  beets,  say  considerably  less 
than  forty  acres,  it  is  usually  necessary  for  two  growers  to  combine 
their  resources  and  use  certain  of  the  equipment  in  partnership,  hire 
some  of  the  heavy  plowing  and  hauling  off  done  by  tractor  owners  or 
farmers  growing  other  crops  who  have  stock  and  implements  available 
at  the  time  of  the  rush  of  beet  work. 

Economics  of  Sugar-Beet  Production. — The  cost  of  producing 
sugar  beets  varies  within  rather  wide  extremes,  depending  on  what 
factors  are  included  in  determining  the  costs.  If  interest,  depre- 
ciation, and  management  are  taken  into  account,  the  cost  will  reach 
a  figure  considerably  higher  than  if  only  the  cost  of  labor — horse  and 
man — material,  and  taxes  are  included.  The  capacity  of  the  man, 
kind  of  land,  distance  of  haul,  size  of  acreage,  available  labor  supply, 
presence  of  weeds,  cflsts  of  water,  are  factors  which  vary  greatly  with 
different  growers  and  in  different  communities. 

To  show  the  approximate  cost  of  producing  the  crop,  taking  only 
operating  expenses  into  account,  the  following  table  is  given : 

PEE  ACRE  OPEEATING  COST  OF  PRODUCING  SUGAR  BEETS 

Market  value  of  Land  Bange 

High $400  to  $600  per  acre 

Low  85  to     100 

Usual    150  to     250 

Cost  of  the  Crop 

Preparing  land  and  planting  Average  figures 

Preparing  seedbed  ($4  to  $12)  * $7.00  per  acre 

Seed 2.25 

Seeding 50 

Growing  the  crop 

Irrigating— labor   ($1  to  $4)  3.00 

Irrigating — water    ($2   to   $6)  4.00 

Thinning  and  hoeing  ($4.50  to  $8)  7.00 

Cultivating   ($1   to  $3)  2.00 

Harvesting 

Plowing  out   ($2.50  to  $5)  3.00 

Pulling,  topping  and  loading 

Under  ten  tons  (75c  to  $1)  90  per  ton 

Ten  tons  and  over   (50c  to  75c)  60 

Hauling    (two   miles) 65 

Taxes  and  insurance 

Average   land    3.00  per  acre 

Good  land   5.00 


21 

Market  Value  of  Yield,  f.o.b.  cars  or  factory 

High    7.50  per  ton 

Low  4.50 

Average    5.50 

By-Products 

Tops    (50c  to  $4)  2.00  per  acre 

Using  average  figures  as  given,  the  cost,  value,  and  profit  per  acre 
for  ten,  fifteen  and  twenty-ton  crops  are : 

Cost  Values  per  Acre 

(Operating   Costs)  (Average   Price)  Profits 

Yield  Per  acre       Per  ton  Per  ton        Per  acre  Per  acre       Per  ton 

Ten  tons  $37.25         $3.73  $5.50         $55.00  $17.75         $1.77 

Fifteen   tons   37.75  2.52  5.50  82.50  44.75  2.98 

Twenty   tons   42.75  2.14  5.50         110.00  67.25  3.36 

These  calculations  illustrate  the  desirability  of  good  yields. 
Although  the  increase  tonnage  raises  the  cost  per  acre  somewhat,  the 
cost  per  ton  is  markedly  less  as  the  yield  increases.  The  profits  per 
acre  increase  with  the  larger  yield  in  greater  proportion  than  the 
increase  in  yield  itself  amounts  to,  for  while  the  fifteen-ton  yield  is 
but  50  per  cent  more  than  the  ten-ton  yield  in  weight  of  crop,  the 
profits  are  250  per  cent  more.  In  the  same  way  a  100  per  cent  increase 
in  yield  over  the  ten-ton  crop  increases  the  profits  over  375  per  cent. 


SUMMAEY 

Proper  conditions  of  soil,  water,  climate,  and  transportation  are 
essential  to  sugar  beet  production,  commercial  areas  being  confined 
to  sections  where  sugar  companies  are  operating  as  sale  to  a  mill  con- 
stitutes the  only  available  market. 

California  offers  sections  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  the 
crop,  as  demonstrated  to  some  extent  by  an  increase  of  acreage  from 
sixty  thousand  acres  in  1906  to  over  one  hundred  and  forty-four 
thousand  in  1916. 

Sugar  beets  are  commercially  grown  only  under  contract  made 
between  the  grower  and  a  sugar  mill.  Contracts  are  of  two  general 
classes,  based  on  either  tonnage  or  sugar  content.  The  grower  should 
acquaint  himself  with  the  terms  of  his  contract  both  for  his  own 
protection  and  to  guide  in  determining  the  kind  of  beets  to  raise. 

The  observance  of  deep  soil  preparation,  formation  of  a  good  seed- 
bed, early  planting,  frequent  cultivation,  proper  thinning,  optimum 
moisture  supply,  and  maintenance  of  soil  fertility  are  necessary  in 
obtaining  the  best  yields. 


22 

Preferable  times  of  planting  are: 

Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys,  January  15  to  March  15. 
Southern  California,  October  1  to  April  1. 
Central  coast  counties,  February  1  to  June  1. 

In  harvesting,  the  beets  should  be  topped  at  the  groundline  to 
insure  minimum  removal  of  plant  foods. 

As  approximately  eight  tons  of  roots  are  needed  to  pay  the  cost 
of  production,  and  ten  tons  is  about  an  average  yield,  an  increased 
yield  for  the  state  at  large  is  worth  striving  for. 

Beets  are  placed  in  rotation  when  yields  begin  to  decrease  or  to 
secure  the  beneficial  effects  of  their  culture  on  subsequent  crops. 

Sugar  beet  by-products  of  interest  to  the  California  farmer  are 
the  mill  waste  water  and  the  tops.  Both  are  of  interest  in  maintain- 
ing fertility,  while  the  tops  are  of  additional  value  for  stock  feed. 

Much  hard  work  is  necessary  in  producing  a  crop  and  labor  able 
to  do  the  manual  work  must  be  assured. 

Given  good  soil  and  good  soil  management,  Curly  Top  is  the 
limiting  factor  in  sugar-beet  production.  Its  control  may  be  mater- 
ially aided  by  early  planting  and  attention  to  supplying  proper  grow- 
ing conditions.  Other  troubles  occurring  from  time  to  time,  or  in 
certain  localities  are  of  lesser  importance. 

Some  special  equipment  is  needed  in  sugar  beet  farming,  but  the 
investment  is  not  unduly  great.  From  $1300  to  $3000  will  furnish 
equipment  sufficient  for  forty  acres. 

The  cost  of  growing  sugar  beets  varies  greatly  with  conditions  and 
the  tonnage  obtained.  Large  tonnage  increases  profits  by  decreasing 
operating  costs  per  ton,  the  profits  increasing  in  much  greater  pro- 
portion than  the  size  of  the  yields. 


